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A Tourist's Guide to Williamsburg and Hampton Roads Sights
Colonial Williamsburg, 101 Visitor Center Drive, Williamsburg, Virginia
Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia’s top tourist attraction and the state’s second capital after Jamestown, is like entering a time portal to the colonial era. Founded in 1699, it had been conceived as a prestigious, sophisticated gathering place because of its chosen location next to the College of William and Mary.
As in any town, its citizens had pursued daily mercantile activities, providing functions, goods, and services in exchange for the salaries they themselves had needed to purchase those goods and services. Craftsmen had practiced their trades: blacksmiths, coopers, shoemakers, printers, gunsmith, cabinetmakers, and wigmakers had all made vital contributions to the community’s continued existence, while the remainder of the people had engaged in military and governmental pursuits.
Transportation had been provided by horse-drawn wagons and carriages, as evidenced even today by ubiquitous clompings on the dirt streets.
Several buildings had been nucleic to life. The Peyton-Randolph House and kitchen, for example, had once been the home of one of Virginia’s leading politicians and the scene of numerous social and political gatherings. Civil and criminal cases had been tried at the Courthouse. The circular, brick Magazine had served as Williamsburg’s arsenal and had stored arms and gunpowder on its upper level. The Printing Office and Bookbinding shop had been instrumental in pre-Revolution information distribution. The James Anderson Blacksmith shop had repaired arms for American forces. In 1776, the patriots of Virginia had voted for independence in the Capitol and a new state constitution had been drafted there. The government had conducted war over a five-year period from this location and legislation had created the Republican party within its walls.
The Governor’s Palace, the city’s most opulent structure, had been the residence of several royal governors and the first two elected governors of the new sovereign state of Virginia, and today retains the appearance of the home of Lord Dunmore, the last British governor to have lived there on the eve of the Revolution.
As in the current day, men often met in taverns to drink and discuss business.
The town, associated with such names as Thomas Jefferson, George Mason, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, and George Washington, had offered little manufacturing, but instead had acted as the political and economic center of Virginia for 80 years, having been England’s largest and wealthiest colony--the location of enacted laws and administered justice, and the site where the seeds of democracy and political independence had been planted in an ultimate attempt to separate itself from its source.
Williamsburg had thrived until Virginia’s capital had been relocated to Richmond in 1780, whereafter it had declined to a backwater town.
The town’s slow rebirth began in 1926 when the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation had been established to excavate buried foundations and reconstruct the crumbling buildings which had still stood, ultimately transforming it into the world’s largest, 18th-century living history museum comprised of 88 restored structures and some 500 other reconstructed ones spread over 301 acres.
Colonial Williamsburg is once again alive: the buildings can be visited; the pounding of the glowing anvil can be heard in the blacksmith shop; cases can be heard in the courthouse; costumed interpreters reenact scenes from earlier life; soldiers march down Duke of Gloucester Street; meals can be eaten in four historic taverns; 18th-century goods are made and sold in the numerous shops; and horse-drawn carriages still clomp down the unpaved streets.
An extensive Visitor’s Center, replete with gift shops, bookstores, and theaters where the introductory film, “Williamsburg: Story of a Patriot,” is shown, provides the threshold to this colonial era, and is the departure point of the shuttle buses which periodically take visitors to the city’s two entry points. At least two full days are needed to visit Williamsburg’s significant buildings, observe its costumed “citizens” at work, witness their numerous reenactments, peruse the museums, shop for period items, eat in the taverns, and partake of the evening entertainment programs. A hefty entrance fee provides access to most of these sights and events, although “add-ons” are required for certain buildings and programs, and prices vary according to the number of days the passes cover.
Historic Jamestowne, Jamestown, Virginia
Thirteen years before the Pilgrims had even set foot in Plymouth, Massachusetts, 104 English men and boys, representing the Virginia Company of London, had made the four-and-a-half month ocean voyage in three ships designated the Susan Constant, the Discovery, and the Godspeed from London, and landed on the banks of the James River in current-day Virginia, establishing the first permanent English settlement in North America. The date, May 13, 1607, can be considered “one small step for European-kind,” but had ultimately served as the threshold to the United States of America.
In 1994, archaeologists had begun a search for the settlement’s original location and two years later they had uncovered sufficient evidence to determine that the James Fort had been built on a small island on the banks of the James River originally separated from the mainland by a narrow isthmus. The site, designated Historic Jamestowne and administered by the National Park Service, can be visited.
Subdivided into Old Towne and New Towne sections, the former contains the site of the original, 1607, triangular-shaped fort whose foundation is roughly outlined by brick, and a 17th-century church and tower, while the latter, located past the Tercentenary Monument, sports brick replicas to mark excavation foundations of the expanded settlement.
Jamestown Settlement, Route 31, Off Colonial Parkway
Jamestown Settlement, located a mile from the original site, recreates several key features of it. A huge, red brick Visitors Center, with reception, cafeteria, gift shop, interpretive galleries, and films, leads to the outdoor path which winds its way to the docks on the James River.
The first of the recreated scenes, a Powhatan Indian village based upon the archaeological findings of a site once occupied by the Paspahegh tribe, features hide-covered sleeping and storage houses, a ceremonial circle, hide-tanning frames, and planting fields.
The triangular-shaped James Fort, located further down the path, had been the first home of the original settlers and features recreated, wattle-and-daub, thatched-roof structures, a storehouse, a church, a guard court, and three bulwarks. Daily reenactments demonstrate carpentry, agriculture, rifle shooting, blacksmithing, and cooking.
The Riverfront Discovery Area offers insight into how water had provided the core of commonality for different 17th-century cultures, all of which had relied upon it for fishing, transportation, boat building, and trading.
The three ship replicas docked in the harbor represent the lifelines of the English colonists, the largest of which is the 110-foot-long, square-rigged Susan Constant. Crew had lived and worked on its main deck, while passengers and cargo had been accommodated below.
Jamestown Settlement complements Historic Jamestowne with visual, full-size replicas of excavations just rising from the ground at the original site.
Yorktown Battlefield, Route 238
Jamestown had served as America’s origin. Williamsburg had served as the pivot of governmental development, the cradle where the American Revolution’s forefathers had been nurtured. One more location, however, would serve as the point where that Revolution had led to victory, separation, and independence.
While the French naval fleet had sailed southward toward the Chesapeake Bay during the latter portion of 1781, General George Washington had believed that the optimum opportunity for a decisive land-and-sea battle had been at hand and, in cooperation with French General Rochenbeau, had quietly relocated both American and French troops from New York to Yorktown, Virginia.
Intercepting British ships outside of the Virginia Cape on September 5, the French had succeeded in blockading them and causing their subsequent retreat. Arriving in Yorktown later that month, Washington and Rochenbeau seized the town, surrounding Lord Cornwallis’ British troops.
In early October, Washington dug trenches from which to launch an out-and-out attack, American and French detachments subsequently cornering the two British redoubts on October 14, which had rapidly exhausted their ammunition supplies. Defeated, Cornwallis surrendered five days later, ending the six-year Revolution and effectively beginning a new nation and a new government.
The settlers who had put the first English footprint in Jamestown had now just put the first American one in Yorktown.
Yorktown Battlefield, the actual site of the historical event and reconstructed with the aid of 18th-century military maps and excavations, accurately depicts Washington’s siege, pinpointing British and American troop locations. The nearby Moore House had been the location of the surrender term negotiations.
Yorktown Victory Center, Route 238
Life during and after the Revolution can be gleaned from the Yorktown Victory Center, which depicts a recreated Continental Army encampment and a 1780 tidewater Virginia farm. The former encompasses commanding officer and regimental surgeon quarters and several soldiers’ tents, while the latter features dwellings, a tobacco barn, a kitchen, a herb and vegetable garden, and an agricultural field where corn, tobacco, cotton, and flax are grown.
Yorktown, the third of the three locations after Jamestown and Williamsburg, forms an integral part of Virginia’s “Historic Triangle” which is connected by the 23-mile, James and York River-paralleling scenic byway and is part of Colonial National Historical Park. Established in 1893 when the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities had acquired 22.5 acres on Jamestown Island, it had created the Colonial National Monument incorporating Jamestown, Yorktown, and the connecting parkway in 1930. The National Park Service had acquired the remaining 1,500 acres of the island four years later.
Busch Gardens, Route 60 East, Williamsburg, Virginia
Aside from the Historic Triangle sights themselves, one of Williamsburg’s most indicative attractions, and one which is the epitome of family fun, is Busch Gardens. Voted “most beautiful park” for the past 18 years, this bathing suit-necessary, European-themed complex, encompassing more than 100 acres, offers rides, shops, restaurants, and entertainment venues subdivided into areas representing England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Germany, and Italy. Rides include world-class roller coasters; a 36-inch-gauge steam locomotive-propelled train which makes a 1.5-mile loop; the world’s first, and floorless, dive coaster which plunges 205 feet at a 90-degree angle; and a vertically-diving log plume.
Water Country USA, 176 Water Country Parkway
Aquatic thrills can also be experienced at Water Country USA, the mid-Atlantic’s largest water park. Exuding a 1950’s and 1960’s surf theme, the complex offers more than 50 rides, attractions, shops, and restaurants, including the “Hubba Hubba Highway,” an interactive river adventure whose free-floating ride plunges through water-sprouting coconut trees and geysers; a high-speed, twisting and turning toboggan plunge evocatively called “Meltdown,” and the tunnel- and water curtain-penetrating “Aquazoid.”
Ripley’s Believe It or Not, 1735 Richmond Road, Williamsburg, Virginia
Kid curiosity can be peaked at Ripley’s Believe It or Not, whose more than 300 exhibits and artifacts, reflecting Robert Ripley’s life philosophy of collecting and displaying odd, strange, bizarre, and, at times, unbelievable, items from ancient and exotic civilizations amassed during global travels, include prehistoric dinosaur eggs, 3,000-year-old mummified falcon remains from Egypt, shrunken heads from South America, golf balls once driven on the moon, locks of George Washington’s hair, two-headed kittens, and 500-pound gorillas formed by nails. These strange effects are only exacerbated by the museum’s 4-D theater.
Yankee Candle, 2200 Richmond Road, Williamsburg, Virginia
Yankee Candle, a combination shopping and sightseeing attraction, appears to both kids and kids at heart. Aside from selling some 250,000 candles, 200 candle scents, toys, gifts, and holiday ornaments, its is a year-round winter wonderland. Its entirely indoor Holiday Park features a 25-foot, revolving Christmas tree; a color-changing ice pond; falling snow; Santa’s workshop; a Christmas countdown clock; and an animated show, “Hickory, Dickory, Doc.”
Haunted Dinner Theater, 5363 Richmond Road, Williamsburg, Virginia
The Haunted Dinner Theater, another combination attraction, pairs a 71-item, all-you-can-eat dinner buffet at Captain George’s Restaurant with a comedy murder mystery which incorporates audience clues to solve the nightly “whodunit.” The winning combination has been running since 1994.
Air Power Park, 413 West Mercury Boulevard, Hampton, Virginia
The outdoor Air Power Park, dedicated in recognition of the contributions made by NASA and Langley Air Force Base to aerial and space development and for their interest in community endeavors, features several unique aircraft designs, inclusive of the Lockheed T-33A T-Bird, an A-7E Corsair II, an XV-6A Kestrel V/STOL, a North American F-86L Sabre, the later-developed North American Rockwell F-100D Super Sabre, a McDonnell F-101F Voodoo, a Northrop F-89J Scorpion, and a Republic Aviation F-105D Thunderchief. Even rarer, perhaps, is its space-related collection, including an SM-78 Jupiter surface-to-surface intermediate-range ballistic missile, a Western Electric NIM-14 Nike-Hercules two-stage missile, a Jet Propulsion Lab M-2 Corporal Ballistic Missile, a North American Aviation Mercury/Little Joe Booster, and a Mercury Test Capsule.
Mariners’ Museum, 100 Museum Drive, Newport News, Virginia
Changing from air to sea, the Mariners’ Museum, one of the world’s largest and most comprehensive, displays more than 50 full-size boats and ships; authentic, hand-crafted ship models; and seafaring artifacts, subdivided into eight exhibits and galleries: the Chesapeake Bay Gallery, the USS Monitor Center, the Age of Exploration, Defending the Sea, the Great Hall of Steam, the Nelson Touch, International Small Craft Center, and the Miniature Ships of August and Winnifred Crabtree. Its award-winning gallery, the $30 million, 63,500-square-foot USS Monitor Center, houses a full-scale replica and actual remains of one of the Civil War’s most important vessels. The experience is further heightened by walk-through, high-definition “battle theaters.”
The conceptual design for the United States’ first full, hull and protective plating ironclad ship, powered by steam and sporting a rotating turret, had been submitted to the US Navy by Swedish-American engineer John Ericsson, and the resulting vessel, the USS Monitor, had been launched on January 30, 1862 from Greenport, Long Island. Two months later, in March, it had been ordered to Hampton Roads, Virginia, in order to protect the federal fleet stationed there, but on the ninth day of that month, it had engaged in a four-hour battle with a Confederate ironclad, the CSS Virginia, although neither had sustained much damage.
During its New Year’s Eve towing at the end of the year by the USS Rhode Island to Beaufort, North Carolina, however, it had been caught by a fierce storm off of Cape Hatteras and 16 crew members had been swept overboard and perished.
Today, most of the ship remains submerged off of North Carolina in the US’s first marine sanctuary, which had been designated on January 30, 1975.
Virginia Living Museum, 524 J. Clyde Morris Boulevard, Newport News, Virginia
While the Mariners’ Museum focuses on the sea, the Virginia Living Museum showcases what lives in it, as well as on land, in settings such as a cypress swamp, a mountain cove, the Chesapeake Bay, and a limestone cave. Living exhibits include color-changing frogs, moon jellies, eyeless fish, loggerhead turtles, spider crabs, red wolves, otters, and coyotes. An extensive collection of native plants completes the flora and fauna experience.
Fort Monroe/Casemate Museum, Casemate 20, Bernard Road, Fort Monroe, Hampton, Virginia
Fort Monroe, progressively constructed between 1819 and 1834 and located on the north side of the channel between the Chesapeake Bay and Hampton Roads, is the country’s largest stone fort and only moat-surrounded, still-operating one. A Union stronghold during the Civil War, where both Robert E. Lee and Edgar Allan Poe had served, it had once sheltered thousands of slave refugees. Its present Casemate Museum, location of Confederate President Jefferson Davis’s cell, displays uniforms, weapons, and artifacts collectively depicting the fort’s history.
Virginia Air and Space Center, 600 Settlers Landing Road, Hampton, Virginia
The Virginia Air and Space Center, located in downtown Hampton on the waterfront, is a $30 million, 110,000 square foot, nine-story facility which had opened on April 5, 1992 and is characterized by its futuristic, interconnected, dual-building, gull wing roof-resembling architecture. Its more than 30 historic air- and spacecraft, which represent more than 100 years of flight, are exhibited in the recently completed, $9 million Adventures in Flight Gallery and the Space Gallery, and include such designs as the Apollo 12 Command Module which had made the journey to the Moon, an AirTran DC-9-30, a B-24 Liberator nose section, an F.84 Thunderstreak, an F-4E Phantom II, an N2S-3 Stearman, a Lunar Orbiter, an F-104 Starfighter, an F-106 Delta Dart, a YF-16 Fighting Falcon, and a P-39Q Aircobra. A new exhibit, “Space Quest: Exploring the Moon, Mars, and Beyond,” had recently been introduced in the Space Gallery. Extensive, hands-on exhibits, featuring hot air balloons, noise abatement, a Boeing 717 glass cockpit fight simulator, aircraft flight surfaces, propeller efficiency comparatives, and Space Shuttle landing simulators, are complemented by the Riverside IMAX and Curtiss Jenny Century of Flight Theaters.
The museum also serves as the Visitor Center for both the NASA Langley Research Center and Langley Air Force Base.
Hampton Carousel, 602 Settlers Landing Road, Hampton, Virginia
The Hampton Carousel, located downtown on the waterfront and housed in its own pavilion, had been built in 1920 and is one of only 170 antique wooden merry-go-rounds remaining in the US.
Miss Hampton II Harbor Cruises, 710 Settlers Landing Road, Hampton, Virginia
Water-surrounded Hampton Roads cannot be fully enjoyed without at least one boat cruise on it. The Miss Hampton II, a 44-passenger, dual-deck boat with a snack bar, departs daily from the Hampton Marina, plying Hampton Roads Harbor; stopping at the 1819-built Fort Wool; and tours the Norfolk Naval Base, the world’s largest naval installation. Adults and kids alike are often fascinated by the 1,098-foot-long, nuclear-powered Nimitz-Class aircraft carriers which weigh in excess of 100,000 tons and are manned by 6,000 crew members; the Wasp-class amphibious assault ships; the guided missile destroyers; the Los Angeles-class, fast-attack, nuclear-powered submarines; and the Ticonderoga-class missile destroyers.
Voodoo Lab Sparkle Drive with Fulltone OCD?
do these pedals sound good together? i lead worship and i help lead worship. thats the style i play so if that helps any. haha it would be glorious if you guys could help me out here. appreciate it.
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Word formation and formation of word process
Nowadays, the terms ‘word formation’ does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage. It is sometimes referred to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change of a word and creation of a new term is quite easy to perceive, there is sometimes a dispute as to whether blending is still a morphological change or making a new word. There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages. One of the distinctive properties of human language is creativity, by which we mean the ability of native speakers of a language to produce and understand new forms in their language. Even though creativity is most apparent when it comes to sentence formation, it is also manifest in our lexical knowledge, where new words are added to our mental lexicon regularly. In this paper the most comprehensive expositions of word formation processes that speakers of a language use regularly (and unconsciously too) to create new words in their language are presented.
Compounding
Noun+Noun
The most common type of word formation is the combination of two (or more) nouns in order to form a resulting noun:
Noun + Noun = Noun
Examples: landmine, wallpaper, toothbrush
The first of the two compounds may be descriptive (i.e. tablecloth, a cloth with which to clean [or cloth] tables), or both compounds may create a whole new meaning altogether (i.e railroad, which is not a "road" in the typical sense of the word.) It is also possible to form words whose components are equally important to or descriptive of its meaning, for example, a washer-dryer refers to an object combining two functions.
There are, of course, many more different ways how compound nouns can be related to each other and how their new meanings can best be explained grammatically. In most cases, however, the nature of these compounds is self-explanantory, and their meanings are quite comprehensible even for those who encounter them for the first time.
Note that compound nouns usually appear as two separate words, only those more commonly used, those found in every-day language, and usually compounds with no more than three syllables are found as one word. Hyphens (-) between the segments of a compound noun are absolutely exceptional. Examples:
windowsill (the sill attached under a window), shopwindow (a shop's window), doorkey (a key for the door), bookpage (a page in a book), silverspoon (a spoon made of silver), waterpipe (a pipe that carries water), dockyard (a yard for docks), fireman (somebody who fights fire), wallpaper ("paper" one glues to walls), Independence Day (anniversary of the Declaration of Independence), office supply (goods for office use), water shortage (shortage of water), labour riot (employees rioting), television set (a set for watching television), headache (an aching head), snowfall (snow falling), answerphone (a phone that answers), air-conditioner (a machine conditioning air), gunfight (a fight carried out with guns)
Verb+Noun
Here verbs describe what is done with an object or what a subject "does", in short, a new noun is formed, usually referring to something concrete, and the verb defines the action related to it:
Verb + Noun = Noun: draw + bridge = drawbridge.
A drawbridge is a bridge that can be inclined in order to allow ships to pass, or "drawn". Here, the noun is the direct object.
hitman = a man who carries out "dirty jobs", or, who "hits". Here, the word as part of speech is the subject.
Besides that, both segments can be related in other ways, i.e. the noun may stand for a adverb of place: walkway = people walk on the walkway.
The usual rules apply to spelling. More examples:
walkway (a way to walk on), divecenter (a place where one goes diving), runway (a strip of flat land where aircraft start or land ["run"]), filter-paper (paper used for filtering liquids or gases), driveway (a road leading to a garage or a building), payday (the day one receives his or her salary), paycheck (a check used for the payment of wages or salaries),
Noun+Adjective
Nouns and adjectives can also be compounded in the opposite order:
Noun + Adjective = Adjective
Camera + shy = camera-shy (Shy in respect of appearing or speaking before cameras).
In this case, the resultant is an adjective, while the noun explains the objective.
Another possibility is that the noun supports the adjective, i.e. as an intensifier:
dirt-cheap = cheap as dirt; paper-thin = thin as paper
Those rules do also apply to the linking of nouns and participial adjectives:
English-speaking; soul-destroying; frost-bitten
More common and shorter compounds appear as one word whereas those longer and less common are linked by a hyphen. More examples of all subtypes:
waterproof (proof or resistant against water), seaworthy (a ship withstanding the dangers of the sea), airworthy (an aircraft safely flyable), blameworthy (a person deserving blame), book worthy (something worth being published), trustworthy (somebody who can be trusted), jet black (deep black), footsore (having a sore foot), heart-sick (a person suffering from heart disease), seasick (being sick from the effects of a stormy sea), home-made (made privately at home), power-mad (mad about or craving power), color-blind (unable to discriminate colors other than black and white and grey),
Other Compounds
There are various other types of compounds. A selection of which is shown below.
Adjective+Adjective
Bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, aural-oral, Anglo-Saxon
Adjective + Participle
Far-reaching, far fetched, narrow-minded, single-minded, high-climbing, low-yielding, red-painted, bare-handed
Prefixes
In contrast to compounding, affixation links so-called prefixes and suffixes, which are not independent words, to words of all types. The type of affix determines the effect the affixation will have on the word. Here, we discuss supportive and opposing prefixes. They are used to express support for or disapproval of whatever is expressed by the word they're attached to.
Supportive and opposing Prefixes (Prefixes of attitude)
Pro = on the side of, supporting: pro-choice, pro-life, pro-market, pro-libertarian; added to: nouns, adjectives of denomination.
Anti = against, counteracting: anti-missile, anti-social, antibody, anti-abortion, anti-regulatory; = antagonistic: anti-hero, antichrist; added to: nouns, adverbs, denominal adjectives.
Counter = in opposition to: to counteract, counter-revolution, counter-example, counter-espionage, counter-productive; added to: verbs, abstract nouns, adjectives.
Contra = contrasting, against: contraception, contraindicate, contra flow, contradistinction; added to: abstract nouns, verbs.
Negative Prefixes
A rough outline of negative prefixes and their usage is given below.
a = not, lacking in, not affected by, devoid of quality: atheist, amoral (not subject to moral standards), asymmetry, apolitical, asexual; added to: adjectives, nouns.
dis = not, absolute opposite of what is meant by the second element: disloyal, distrust, disagree, dislike, disfavour, disadvantage; added to: adjectives, abstract nouns, verbs.
UN = not, the opposite of; before words of French origin: in-, il-(before l), im-(before p), ir-(before r). Note: These are the most commonly used prefixes of negation. Examples: unfair, unassuming, unexpected, unproductive, insane, injustice, intolerance, impatience, imperfect, irregular, illegal, incapable, illogical, improper, irrelevant; added to: adjectives, participles (only un-).
non = not, not regarded as: non-stop, non-interference, non-aggression, non-smoker, non-drip (paint), non-person, non-event; added to: varios types of words and expressions, mainly nouns and verbs.
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Prefixes of Place (Locative Prefixes)
Locative prefixes determine the place, or relative place, or (relative) direction, of action or objects. Also, abstract nouns and processes or relations are determined in terms of locality. Perhaps a look at the following will provide a clear picture:
ante = before (locally): antechamber, anteroom; added to: nouns.
circum = around: circumnavigate, circumlocution, circumcision; added to: verbs, nouns.
extra = outside, beyond: extramarital, extracurricular, extrasensory, extra-pay; added to: adjectivs, nouns.
fore = in front, front part of: forefinger, foreskin, forecourt, forehead; added to: nouns.
in = inside, into: also il-, im-, ir- ingathering, indoors, in-patient (not impatient); added to: participles, nouns.
inter = between, in between: interracial, international, interdisciplinary, interrace; added to: adjectives, nouns.
intra = inside: intramural, intra-uterine, intravenous; added to: adjectives.
supra = above: supranational, supramundane; added to: adjectives.
sur = above: surtax, surcharge, surtitle; nouns, verbs.
tele = at a distance: telecommunication, television; added to: nouns, verbs.
trans = across: transatlantic, transnational, transsexual; added to: adjectives, geographical names.
ultra = beyond, excessively, extremely: ultra-violet, ultra-sonic, ultra-modest, ultra-thin, ultra-modern, ultra-orthodox; added to: adjectives.
under = below: underground, undercarriage, underclothes; added to: nouns; = too little; undercharge, underpay, undercook, undervalue: added to: verbs; = subordinate: under-secretary, underclass, underling; added to: nouns.
Additional locative prefixes: Prepositions determining direction, both locatively and figuratively applied: to bypass, to upgrade, to downsize, to undergo, to oversee.
Prefixes of Size, Degree and Status
These prefixes determine mostly nouns, and are self-explanatory to a large extent:
arch = highest, worst, chief: archbishop, arch-rival, archangel, archduke, arch-enemy; added to: nouns.
macro = large: macrocosm, macro-economics; added to: nouns.
micro = small: micro transmitter, micro-computer, microsurgery, micro-economics; added to: nouns.
mega = very large: megastar, megastore; added to: nouns.
mini = small: miniseries, minibreak, minicab, miniskirt; added to: nouns
Prefixes of Time and Order
These prefixes determine time and order, their meanings and usage are given below.
Ante = before: antenatal, antedate; added to: adjectives.
Ex = former: ex-wife, ex-president; human nouns.
Fore = before: to foresee, to foretell, foregone; added to: verbs, participles, nouns.
Mid = middle: mid-afternoon, midwinter, midnight; added to: nouns denoting points or periods of time.
Neo = new, recent form of, revived: neo-colonialism, neo-conservative, neo-fascist; added to: abstract nouns, adjectives.
Post = after: post-war, post-modernism, post-structuralist; added to: nouns denoting time, abstract nouns, adjectives denoting periods of time.
Pre = before, pre-arranged before the time/period of: prepay, pre-existing, predate, preview, preschool, pre-war, pre-marital; added to: nouns, adjectives.
Prefixes of Number
Numeral prefixes the amount, quantity, or scope.
mono = single, one: monotheism, monorail, monoplane, monotonous; added to: nouns, adjectives.
uni = one: unidirectional, uni-dimensional, unilateral; added to: adjectives, nouns.
poly = many: polysyllabic, polytheism, polygraph; added to: adjectives, nouns.
multi = many: multi-faith, multinational, multimillionaire, multi-racial; added to: nouns, adjectives.
semi = half, partly: semicircle, semi-automatic, semi-conscious, semi-official; added to: nouns, adjectives.
demi = half, partly: demisemiquaver, demigod; added to: nouns in most cases.
Class-changing and converting Prefixes
The prefixes a-, be-, en- and em- have the primary effect to change the class (or type) of words, or, to convert.
a = added to verbs in order to form predicative adjectives (no synonymical explanation possible): afloat (A ships that's floating is afloat), aloft (An aircraft airborne is aloft).
be = added to nouns in order to form transitive verbs: to besiege (To surround to force into surrender), to beguile (To charm), to bewitch (To put a magic spell on); = added to adjectives in order to form transitive verbs: to becalm (To calm or to make calm), to belittle (To make something or somebody seem unimportant or of lesser value), to befoul (To make foul or dirty; to contaminate); = added to verbs in order to form transitive verbs, and, at the same time, as an intensifying force for verbs: to bedazzle (To bring someone into dazzlement), to becry (To bitterly cry about), to besmear (To make dirty), to bewail (To mourn, or express sorrow over), to bespatter (To cover with spots of dirt), to bespeak (To give evidence of); = added to nouns in order to form participial adjectives: bespectacled (Wearing spectacles), beribboned (Wearing ribbons), bewigged (Wearing a wig), besotted (Hopelessly in love with sb., but only in reference to men [women are infatuated]).
Recent Coinages of prefixed words
Here is a both complementary and concluding selection of current word formations, clarifying the importance of word formations in today's English:
anti-choice, bicultural, co-presenter, counter-culture, deselect, difunctional, disinvest, eco-tourism, Eurosceptic, ex-directory, gigabyte, hypertext, interface, intra-uterine, macrobiotic, maxi series, megastar, microsurgery, minibreak, multimedia, neo-colonialism, non-proliferation, pan-African, paramedic, postmodernism, preschooler, proactive, reflag, retrofire, supergun, ungreen, unisex, up-market
Note that the usual rule of hyphenizing formations of more than three syllables is not followed in every case; the respective formation has already become received standard, constituting an independant word.
Suffixes
Verb Suffixes
Here, suffixes, which fulfill the function of forming verbs from other word classes, are defined and explained.
-ify = to make, to cause: to simplify, to beautify, to classify, to personify, to countrify, to ladify, to prettify, to Frenchify; added to: nouns (i.e. beauty) and adjectives (i.e. pretty) in order to form (mainly) transitive verbs.
-ize = also -ise = to make, to treat in the way of: to scandalize, to civilize, to organize, to circularize, to mesmerize, to Americanize, to familiarize, to legalize, to nationalize, to soberize, to patronize, to materialize, to popularize, to prioritize, to privatize; added to: adjectives and nouns of romanic origin, but also proper names in order to form mainly transitive verbs. Note that to apologize, to botanize, to sympathize are not word formations in that respect, because the remaining stem wouldn't be an independent English word if "-ize" were taken away.
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Adjective Suffixes
-able (also -ible on words of Latin or French origin) - words ending -able have to meaning "that can or deserves to be -ed" (in which "-ed" stands for any past participle); or, "that is able to do this"; or, “that can be done with it”: breakable, eatable, exchangeable, pitiable, readable, reliable, available, objectionable, treasonable, knowledgeable, agreeable, forgettable, unthinkable, intelligible, responsible, audible; added to: chiefly verbs of action. Note that certain combinations like demonstrable (to demonstrate), separable (to separate) or any one based on verbs ending -ate, retain only the stem of the base verb instead of the whole verb. Verbs ending -y change into -i; that, however, does not affect the choice of -able vs. -ible, which is solely determined by the verb's origin. Please beware that these forms are often used with negative prefixes: unthinkable. Also, it is possible to make a noun out of such adjective: The reliable (What can be relied on).
-al (also -ial) - meaning "of the nature of", "belonging to": natural, occasional, educational, coastal, tidal, accidental, managerial, musical, criminal, editorial, provisional, continental; added to: nouns in order to form primarily non-comparable adjectives. Note: continual, corporal, individual, royal etc. are not word formations in the English sense; however, they resemble the principles explained above.
-an (also -ian) - meaning "in the tradition of", "coming from", "of the nature of": African, Indian, Elizabethan, Victorian, republican; added to: chiefly proper names, geographical names, well-know personal names (Persons defining eras, ideas, or ideologies).
-less = devoid of: careless, harmless, restless, borderless, merciless; added to: nouns (antonym of -ful).
-like = of the nature of, behaving like: childlike, gentlemanlike, godlike; added to: nouns.
-ly = of the nature of, periodic recurrence: cowardly, kingly, earthly, monthly, daily; added to: nouns, denotations of time. This is not to be confused with the formation of adverbs, which happens when -ly is added to an adjective.
-some = productive of: burdensome, fearsome, quarrelsome, troublesome, tiresome, lonesome; added to: nouns, verbs, adjectives. It is highly advisable to consult a dictionary before forming your own combinations.
-ward = in the direction of: upward, eastward, onward, heavenward, homeward, landward, backward, forward (as from fore); added to: locative adverbs.
-y = of the nature of: funny, rusty, smelly, sleepy, choosy, bony, nervy, headachy, second-classy, catchy, sticky fishy, flimsy (derobitary: fishy character); added to: every concrete noun, some verbs.
Suffixes of concrete nouns
Noun suffixes will form nouns from every type of word.
-ant (as well as -ent) = who / that carries out, agentive and instrumental: informant, claimant, solvent, inhabitant, disinfectant, servant; added to: verbs. Consult your dictionary when in doubt.
-er = also -or in words of latin origin: server, dreamer, cleaner, recorder; added to: verbs. Consult your dictionary when in doubt. These often denote person following their profession: baker, bookseller; = device or object fulfilling the task of: container, locker, boiler, mower; added to: verbs. = object, agency or means performing the task of: fixer-upper, do-gooder; added to: verbal phrases (verb +adverb); = denotation of origin of persons: Southerner, Londoner; added to: geographical names.
-ing = agentive: the working (a definite article is mandatory); added to: verbs; = activity: swimming, gardening, manufacturing; added to: verbs; = result: building, clothing, painting; added to: verbs. The result is either a gerund or a participle, according to the context.
-ee = passive, affected by: employee, interviewee, teachee, trustee, evacuee; added to: verbs. The resulting noun must denote a person.
Adverb Suffixes
Adverb suffixes are, like most of the other ones, class-changing. Note that some adjectives (like friendly) cannot be converted into an adverb; when needed to be applied as such, an inserted paraphrase is neccesary.
-ly = in that way. -ly is the standard way to form adjectives: easy - easily; important - importantly; and so on. -ly is added to: adjectives not ending -ly, phrases (matter-of-factly, full-heartedly, cold-bloodedly). It is also added to some neologisms: transbroomstickally. As for the aforesaid: friendly - in a friendly manner (this applies to all adjectives ending -ly).
-wise = in terms of ..., as far as ... is/are concerned: clockwise, notewise, moneywise; added to: nouns.
- ways = in the manner of: sideways, lengthways; added to: nouns.
Recent Coinages (Suffixes)
Below is a selection of current word formation using suffixes:
microwaveable, actional, gentrification, yuppiedom, finger-dried, faxee, leaderene, bagger, bimbette, additive-free, kissogram, wrinklie, gentrigy, networking, wimpish, ableism, survivalist, recyclability, confrontive, privatize, ecomanie, user-friendliness, returnik, retrophilia
Conversion
Conversion is the process or shifting a word into a different word class without adding an affix (that would usually be called "derivation"). Next, we'll discuss how to form nouns denoting actions out of actional verbs.
Verbs of action into nouns
The rule: a verb becomes a noun: to swim -> a swim. Spelling does not change, neither is anything added.
The verb giving rise to this word formation must denote an action: to swim, to walk, to run, to read.
The resulting noun denotes a single action, a specific instance ("I had a good read"), instead of the action or activity as such: "I like running" would be correct, if the activity as such were to be considered. There are, however, some exceptions (work = working as such).
Examples:
to go for a walk, a long run, in the long run (long-term), a good stay, work (denoting the act of working as such), dislike, doubt, to be in the know (to know; only such use), laugh, offer, bore (person or thing that bores), rebel, sneak, drink (what someone drinks), find, reject, cure, polish, wrap, dump (where something is dumped), haunt, stop
Concrete Nouns into Verbs
Here, I'll demonstrate a widely used possibility to employ verbal expressions instead of nominal ones. Concrete nouns, usually denoting things, are converted into verbs meaning something related to the noun, as an action. This definition might sound abstract and weird, but the following examples will make the point clear:
The company´s headquarters really dwarf the other buildings (to dwarf st. = to make st. look small in comparison). Many drivers regularly floor the pedal when driving this road (to floor the pedal = to press it so that it reaches the floor of a car). The satellite failed to deorbit (to deorbit = to leave its path round the earth and return). It is necessary to balance one´s accounts (to balance = to arrange something [i.e. an account] so that things (expenditures/deposits) are in balance).
Other examples: to Xerox (to copy), to fax, to phone, to screen, to water, to fan, to litter, to bridge, to link, to cap, to bottle, to ID.
All of the resulting verbs are transitive.
Adjectives into Verbs
It is also possible, to form verbs from adjectives without altering the word:
The rule: an adjective becomes a verb: faint - to faint (to become faint), idle - to idle (to become idle), slim - to slim (to become slim), calm - to calm (to make calm), clean - to clean (to make clean), smooth - to smooth (to make smooth).
Applications: They consulted a shrink to smooth things out. While suffering for more than two years, he gradually slimmed.
Note that participial adjectives (colored, broken) may not be converted into verbs in this manner. Rather, you´ll need to reconvert these participles into verbs: to color, to break.
Remember that some adjectives change their form in order to become verbs: low - to lower, wide - to widen, weak - to weaken, strong - to strengthen, broad - to broaden, smart - to smarten, easy - to ease.
Other Word classes
There are still some other ways to change word classes without changing spelling, adding or removing parts:
Adverb into Verb: They tried to out him.
Auxiliary into Noun: That course is a must for someone like you.
Conjunctions into Nouns: Don't give me any ifs or buts.
Adverbs/Prepositions into Nouns: I haven't yet learned the ins and outs of the business.
Verb plus Adverb into Noun: I don't have the know-how.
Participles/Adverbs into Adjectives: The meeting had quite an up-cheering effect on the trustees. The theory is that humans, who are after all only jumped-up animals...
Conversions into nouns based on various word classes, especially on sentences and subordinate-clauses: Some local have-nots complained about being associated with do-no-gooders. The goings-on in the country made the president-to-be rethink his taking-care-of-business-approach. An auxiliary army of notorious do-gooders milled about town, pretending to provide help-to-help-oneself to the not-so-well-off, or, as they called them, the less-fortunate. The dowdy and apologetic I'm-a-servant-of-the-proletariat look has gone for good.
Other Word Formations
Concluding, here is an offer of complementary word formations that cannot sensibly be grouped within the context of the previous sections.
Back-formation
Back-formation is the process of deriving words by dropping what is thought to be a suffix or (occasionally) a prefix. It applies chiefly to the coining of verbs from nouns.
Examples: abled (disabled), to explete (expletive), to enthuse (enthusiasm), to liase (liason); to burgle (burglary), to edit (edition, editor), to peddle (peddler), to scavange (scavanger), to sculpt (sculptor, sculpture), to swindle (swindler, the swindle); to air-condition (air-conditioning), to baby-sit (baby-sitter), to brainstorm (brainstorming), to brainwash (brainwashing), to browbeat (browbeating), to dry-clean (dry-cleaner), to house-hunt (house hunter), to sightsee (sightseeing), to tape-record (tape-recorder); to articulate (articulate (a), articulation), to assassinate (assassination), to co educate (co-education), to demarcate (demarcation), to emote (emotion), to intuit (intuition), to legislate (legislation), to marinate (marination), to orate (orination), to vaccinate (vaccination), to vacation (vacation), to valuate (valuation); to diagnose (diagnosis), to laze (lazy), to reminisce (reminiscene), to statistic (statistics), to televise (television).
Clipping
Clipping is a shortening of a word by the omission of one or more syllables.
Examples: bike (bicycle), decaf (decaffeinated coffee), fan (fanatic), exam (examination), phone (telephone), fax (facsimile), fridge (refridgerator), hyper (hyperactive), intercom (intercommunication system), lab (laboratory), medic (medical student/doctor), memo (memorandum), mike (microphone), movie (moving picture), photo (photograph), pub (public house), zoo (zoological gardens), maths (mathematics).
Acronyms
Acronyms are another abreviatory device. The usually resulting word class is that of a noun: ECU (European Currency Unit), scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus), email (electronic mail).
Blends
Blends are also used for abreviatory purposes. Here, two or more complementing components constitute the basis for the resultant. These components are omitted of one or more syllables before compounded to the blend.
Examples: bit binary+digit, camcorder camera+recorder, contraception contrasting+conception, geep goat+sheep, glitterati glitter+literaty, modem modular+demodulator, motel motor+hotel, smog smoke+fog, transistor transfer+resistor.
Miscellaneous
Onomatopoeia - words felt to be suggestive of the sounds they refer to: bubble, burp, clatter, hiss, mutter, and splash.
Words form proper names: bowdlerize, boycott, breille, caesarean, lynch, pasteurize, platonic, sadist, sandwich.
Movement-depictive: to sliver, to scamper, to skedaddle.
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